The provisions for income tax expense were as follows (in thousands):

Due to the enactment of Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (the “Tax Act”) in December 2017, the Company is subject to a tax on global intangible low-taxed income (“GILTI”).  GILTI is a tax on foreign income in excess of a deemed return on tangible assets of foreign corporations. Companies subject to GILTI have the option to account for the GILTI tax as a period cost if and when incurred, or to recognize deferred taxes for temporary differences including outside basis differences expected to reverse as GILTI. The Company has elected to account for GILTI as a period cost, and therefore has included GILTI expense in its effective tax rate calculation for the period.

The SEC staff issued Staff Accounting Bulletin 118 (“SAB 118”), which provides guidance on accounting for the tax effects of the Tax Act. SAB 118 provides a measurement period that should not extend beyond one year from the Tax Act enactment date for companies to complete the accounting under Accounting Standards Codification 740 (“ASC 740”). In connection with its initial analysis of the impact of the Tax Act, the Company recorded a provisional one-time net tax expense of $99.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2017. In 2018, the Company obtained additional information which reduced the Company’s provisional accounting for certain tax effects of the Tax Act by $10.9 million, from $99.9 million as reported at December 31, 2017, to $89.0 million.   

The Company’s provision for income tax expense (benefit) and effective income tax rate are significantly impacted by the mix of the Company’s domestic and foreign earnings (loss) before income taxes. In the non-U.S. jurisdictions in which the Company has operations, the applicable statutory rates are generally lower than in the U.S., ranging from 0.0% to 34.6%. The Company’s provision for income tax expense (benefit) was calculated using the applicable rate for each jurisdiction applied to the Company’s pre-tax earnings (loss) with application of transfer pricing considerations in each jurisdiction, while the Company’s effective tax rate is calculated by dividing income tax expense (benefit) by earnings before income taxes.

The Company’s earnings (loss) before income taxes and income tax expense (benefit) for 2019, 2018 and 2017 are as follows (in thousands):

For 2019, the effective tax rate was lower than the U.S. federal and state combined statutory rate of approximately 25%, primarily because of earnings from foreign operations in jurisdictions imposing either lower tax rates on corporate earnings or no corporate income tax. During 2019, as reflected in the table above, earnings (loss) before income taxes in the U.S. were $5.0  million, with income tax expense of $24.9 million, which is an average rate of 498%. This rate is higher than the 25% U.S. statutory rate primarily due to the taxation of foreign earnings in the U.S. Earnings (loss) before income taxes in non-U.S. jurisdictions were $511.0 million, with an aggregate income tax expense of $63.9 million, which is an average rate of 12.5%. Combined, this results in consolidated earnings before income taxes for the year of $516.0 million, and consolidated income tax expense for the year of $88.8 million, resulting in an effective tax rate of 17.2%. For 2018, of $511.0 million in earnings before income tax earned outside the U.S., $245.6 million was earned in Jersey, which does not impose a tax on corporate earnings. In Jersey, earnings before income taxes increased by $32.3 million to $245.6 million in 2019 from $213.3 million in 2018. This increase was primarily attributable to an increase in international sales which resulted in an increase in earnings before income taxes in Jersey from royalties and commissions under the terms of inter-subsidiary agreements.  In addition, there were foreign losses of $7.6 million for which no tax benefit was recognized during the year ended December 31, 2019 because of the provision of offsetting valuation allowances. Individually, none of the other foreign jurisdictions included in “Other jurisdictions” in the table above had earnings greater than 5% of consolidated earnings (loss) before taxes in any of the years shown.

As of December 31, 2019, the Company had approximately $824.9 million in cash and cash equivalents, of which $566.4 million, or 68.7%, was held outside the U.S. Of the $566.4 million held by its non-U.S. subsidiaries, approximately $220.3 million is available for repatriation to the U.S. without incurring U.S. income taxes and applicable non-U.S. income and withholding taxes in excess of the amounts accrued in the Company’s consolidated financial statements as of December 31, 2019.

The Company’s cash and cash equivalents held in the U.S. and cash provided from operations are sufficient to meet the Company’s liquidity needs in the U.S. for the next twelve months.  However, in anticipation of the needs of the Company’s share repurchase program and the need to provide payment of the Company’s provisional Transition Tax liability, the Company may repatriate certain funds held outside the U.S. for which all applicable U.S. and non-U.S. tax has been fully provided as of December 31, 2019. The Company has provided for the tax impact of expected distributions from its joint venture in China as well as from its subsidiary in Chile to its intermediate parent company in Switzerland. Otherwise because of the need for cash for operating capital and continued overseas expansion, the Company does not foresee the need for any of its other foreign subsidiaries to distribute funds up to an intermediate foreign parent company in any form of taxable dividend. Under current applicable tax laws, if the Company chooses to repatriate some or all of the funds the Company has designated as indefinitely reinvested outside the U.S., the amount repatriated would not be subject to federal income tax but may be subject to applicable non-U.S. income and withholding taxes, and to certain state income taxes.

Income taxes differ from the statutory tax rates as applied to earnings before income taxes as follows (in thousands):

The tax effects of temporary differences that give rise to significant portions of deferred tax assets and deferred tax liabilities at December 31, 2019 and 2018 are presented below (in thousands):

The $2.9 million increase in the valuation allowance primarily relates to increases in deferred tax assets in certain foreign non-benefited loss jurisdictions as discussed above. The Company believes it is more likely than not that the results of future operations in the remaining jurisdictions will generate sufficient taxable income to realize its net deferred tax assets.

State tax credit and net operating loss carry-forward amounts remaining as of December 31, 2019 were $10.5 million and $31.0 million, respectively. State tax credit and net operating loss carry-forward amounts remaining as of December 31, 2018 were $8.9 million and $31.1 million, respectively. These tax credit and net operating loss carry-forward amounts do not begin to expire until 2023 and 2032, respectively. As of December 31, 2019 and 2018, no valuation allowance against the related deferred tax asset have been recorded for these credit and loss carry-forwards as it is believed the carry-forwards will be fully utilized in reducing future taxable income.

As of December 31, 2019, and 2018, the Company had combined foreign net operating loss carry-forwards available to reduce future taxable income of approximately $154.0 million and $121.5 million, respectively. Some of these net operating losses expire beginning in 2020; however, others can be carried forward indefinitely. As of December 31, 2019, and 2018, valuation allowances of $25.9 million and $21.4 million, respectively, had been recorded against the related deferred tax assets for those loss carry-forwards that are not more likely than not to be fully utilized in reducing future taxable income.

The balance of unrecognized tax benefits included in prepaid expenses in the consolidated balance sheets increased by $2.6 million during the year. A reconciliation of the beginning and ending amount of unrecognized tax benefits is as follows (in thousands):

If recognized, $10.6 million of unrecognized tax benefits would be recorded as a reduction in income tax expense.

Estimated interest and penalties related to the underpayment of income taxes are classified as a component of income tax expense and totaled $0.4 million, $0.2 million, and $0.5 million for the years ended December 31, 2019, 2018, and 2017, respectively. Accrued interest and penalties were $2.1 million and $1.8 million as of December 31, 2019 and 2018, respectively.

The amount of income taxes the Company pays is subject to ongoing audits by taxing jurisdictions around the world. The Company’s estimate of the potential outcome of any uncertain tax position is subject to its assessment of relevant risks, facts, and circumstances existing at that time. The Company believes that it has adequately provided for these matters. However, the Company’s future results may include favorable or unfavorable adjustments to its estimates in the period the audits are resolved, which may impact the Company’s effective tax rate.

As of December 31, 2019, the Company’s tax filings are generally subject to examination in the U.S. and most foreign jurisdictions for years ending on or after December 31, 2015, and in several Asian and European tax jurisdictions for years ending on or after December 31, 2009. During the year, the Company reduced the balance of 2019 and prior year unrecognized tax benefits by $0.8 million as a result of expiring statutes. It is reasonably possible that certain domestic and foreign statutes will expire during the next twelve months which would reduce the balance of 2019 and prior year unrecognized tax benefits by $1.6 million.

The Company is currently under examination by a number of states and certain foreign jurisdictions. During the year ended December 31, 2019, there was no reduction in the balance of 2019 and prior year unrecognized tax benefits due to settlements of examinations. It is reasonably possible that certain federal, state and foreign examinations could be settled during the next twelve months which would reduce the balance of 2019 and prior year unrecognized tax benefits by $0.9 million.